diff --git a/spec/models/internal_user_spec.rb b/spec/models/internal_user_spec.rb
index 6e784299..d02d7aa5 100644
--- a/spec/models/internal_user_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/models/internal_user_spec.rb
@@ -89,8 +89,8 @@ describe InternalUser do
 
   describe '#teacher?' do
     it 'is only true for teachers' do
-      expect(build(:admin).teacher?).to be false
-      expect(build(:teacher).teacher?).to be true
+      expect(create(:admin).teacher?).to be false
+      expect(create(:teacher).teacher?).to be true
     end
   end
 end
diff --git a/spec/policies/admin/dashboard_policy_spec.rb b/spec/policies/admin/dashboard_policy_spec.rb
index b40e2694..63b8dedc 100644
--- a/spec/policies/admin/dashboard_policy_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/policies/admin/dashboard_policy_spec.rb
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ describe Admin::DashboardPolicy do
     end
 
     it 'does not grant access to teachers' do
-      expect(policy).not_to permit(build(:teacher), :dashboard)
+      expect(policy).not_to permit(create(:teacher), :dashboard)
     end
 
     it 'does not grant access to external users' do
diff --git a/spec/policies/code_ocean/file_policy_spec.rb b/spec/policies/code_ocean/file_policy_spec.rb
index 233089cf..c3b2d774 100644
--- a/spec/policies/code_ocean/file_policy_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/policies/code_ocean/file_policy_spec.rb
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ describe CodeOcean::FilePolicy do
 
       it 'does not grant access to all other users' do
         %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), file)
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), file)
         end
       end
     end
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ describe CodeOcean::FilePolicy do
 
       it 'does not grant access to all other users' do
         %i[admin external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), file)
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), file)
         end
       end
     end
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ describe CodeOcean::FilePolicy do
 
       it 'does not grant access to all other users' do
         %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), file)
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), file)
         end
       end
     end
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ describe CodeOcean::FilePolicy do
 
       it 'does not grant access to anyone' do
         %i[admin external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), file)
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), file)
         end
       end
     end
diff --git a/spec/policies/consumer_policy_spec.rb b/spec/policies/consumer_policy_spec.rb
index 4f4164fb..c987a6a7 100644
--- a/spec/policies/consumer_policy_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/policies/consumer_policy_spec.rb
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ describe ConsumerPolicy do
       it 'grants access to admins only' do
         expect(policy).to permit(build(:admin), Consumer.new)
         %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), Consumer.new)
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), Consumer.new)
         end
       end
     end
diff --git a/spec/policies/execution_environment_policy_spec.rb b/spec/policies/execution_environment_policy_spec.rb
index bfc5806a..f6378137 100644
--- a/spec/policies/execution_environment_policy_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/policies/execution_environment_policy_spec.rb
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ describe ExecutionEnvironmentPolicy do
     end
 
     it 'grants access to teachers' do
-      expect(policy).to permit(build(:teacher), execution_environment)
+      expect(policy).to permit(create(:teacher), execution_environment)
     end
 
     it 'does not grant access to external users' do
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ describe ExecutionEnvironmentPolicy do
 
       it 'does not grant access to all other users' do
         %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), execution_environment)
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), execution_environment)
         end
       end
     end
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ describe ExecutionEnvironmentPolicy do
 
       it 'does not grant access to all other users' do
         %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), execution_environment)
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), execution_environment)
         end
       end
     end
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ describe ExecutionEnvironmentPolicy do
 
     it 'does not grant access to all other users' do
       %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-        expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name))
+        expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name))
       end
     end
   end
diff --git a/spec/policies/exercise_policy_spec.rb b/spec/policies/exercise_policy_spec.rb
index 3ccfe563..ec7c0c7b 100644
--- a/spec/policies/exercise_policy_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/policies/exercise_policy_spec.rb
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ describe ExercisePolicy do
     it 'grants access to admins only' do
       expect(policy).to permit(build(:admin), exercise)
       %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-        expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), exercise)
+        expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), exercise)
       end
     end
   end
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ describe ExercisePolicy do
       end
 
       it 'grants access to teachers' do
-        expect(policy).to permit(build(:teacher), exercise)
+        expect(policy).to permit(create(:teacher), exercise)
       end
 
       it 'does not grant access to external users' do
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ describe ExercisePolicy do
 
       it 'does not grant access to all other users' do
         %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), exercise)
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), exercise)
         end
       end
     end
@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ describe ExercisePolicy do
 
       %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
         context "when user is #{factory_name}" do
-          let(:user) { build(factory_name) }
+          let(:user) { create(factory_name) }
 
           it 'does not grant access' do
             expect(policy).not_to permit(user, exercise)
@@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ describe ExercisePolicy do
 
         it 'does not grant access to anyone' do
           %i[admin external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-            expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), exercise)
+            expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), exercise)
           end
         end
       end
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ describe ExercisePolicy do
 
         it 'grants access to anyone' do
           %i[admin external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-            expect(policy).to permit(build(factory_name), exercise)
+            expect(policy).to permit(create(factory_name), exercise)
           end
         end
       end
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ describe ExercisePolicy do
 
         it 'grants access to anyone' do
           %i[admin external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-            expect(policy).to permit(build(factory_name), exercise)
+            expect(policy).to permit(create(factory_name), exercise)
           end
         end
       end
@@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ describe ExercisePolicy do
 
         it 'does not grant access to everyone' do
           %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-            expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), exercise)
+            expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), exercise)
           end
         end
       end
@@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ describe ExercisePolicy do
 
       it 'grants access to anyone' do
         %i[admin external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).to permit(build(factory_name), exercise)
+          expect(policy).to permit(create(factory_name), exercise)
         end
       end
     end
@@ -176,7 +176,7 @@ describe ExercisePolicy do
     context 'when teacher-defined assessments are not available' do
       it 'does not grant access to anyone' do
         %i[admin external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), exercise)
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), exercise)
         end
       end
     end
diff --git a/spec/policies/external_user_policy_spec.rb b/spec/policies/external_user_policy_spec.rb
index 8e752327..70c8e11d 100644
--- a/spec/policies/external_user_policy_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/policies/external_user_policy_spec.rb
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ describe ExternalUserPolicy do
       it 'grants access to admins only' do
         expect(policy).to permit(build(:admin), ExternalUser.new)
         %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), ExternalUser.new)
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), ExternalUser.new)
         end
       end
     end
@@ -18,10 +18,10 @@ describe ExternalUserPolicy do
 
   permissions :index? do
     it 'grants access to admins and teachers only' do
-      expect(policy).to permit(build(:admin), ExternalUser.new)
-      expect(policy).to permit(build(:teacher), ExternalUser.new)
+      expect(policy).to permit(create(:admin), ExternalUser.new)
+      expect(policy).to permit(create(:teacher), ExternalUser.new)
       [:external_user].each do |factory_name|
-        expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), ExternalUser.new)
+        expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), ExternalUser.new)
       end
     end
   end
diff --git a/spec/policies/file_type_policy_spec.rb b/spec/policies/file_type_policy_spec.rb
index 5c6ce645..86b8ef85 100644
--- a/spec/policies/file_type_policy_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/policies/file_type_policy_spec.rb
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ describe FileTypePolicy do
 
       it 'does not grant access to all other users' do
         %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), file_type)
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), file_type)
         end
       end
     end
diff --git a/spec/policies/internal_user_policy_spec.rb b/spec/policies/internal_user_policy_spec.rb
index 1e900eb0..1b2378a3 100644
--- a/spec/policies/internal_user_policy_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/policies/internal_user_policy_spec.rb
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ describe InternalUserPolicy do
       it 'grants access to admins only' do
         expect(policy).to permit(build(:admin), InternalUser.new)
         %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), InternalUser.new)
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), InternalUser.new)
         end
       end
     end
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ describe InternalUserPolicy do
     context 'with an admin user' do
       it 'grants access to no one' do
         %i[admin external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), build(:admin))
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), build(:admin))
         end
       end
     end
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ describe InternalUserPolicy do
       it 'grants access to admins only' do
         expect(policy).to permit(build(:admin), InternalUser.new)
         %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-          expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), build(:teacher))
+          expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), create(:teacher))
         end
       end
     end
diff --git a/spec/policies/submission_policy_spec.rb b/spec/policies/submission_policy_spec.rb
index 71bdc3e0..bb36c542 100644
--- a/spec/policies/submission_policy_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/policies/submission_policy_spec.rb
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ describe SubmissionPolicy do
   permissions :create? do
     it 'grants access to anyone' do
       %i[admin external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-        expect(policy).to permit(build(factory_name), Submission.new)
+        expect(policy).to permit(create(factory_name), Submission.new)
       end
     end
   end
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ describe SubmissionPolicy do
     it 'grants access to admins only' do
       expect(policy).to permit(build(:admin), Submission.new)
       %i[external_user teacher].each do |factory_name|
-        expect(policy).not_to permit(build(factory_name), Submission.new)
+        expect(policy).not_to permit(create(factory_name), Submission.new)
       end
     end
   end